WRITING LABORATORY REPORTS

WRITING LABORATORY REPORTS

Writing good lab reports is essential to becoming a scientist. Every discipline and department is different, but the fundamental rules in writing a report never change. Here are the basics for you but remember, if your department guidelines are different, follow them-we're not marking your reports, they are!

Lab reports are a written version of the experiment oR exercise that you performed in the lab or practical class. Each department has its own preferred structure for lab reports, but there is a general format that they all conform to. This structure is part of the scientific style we described in the last chapter (pp. 70-82).

Why do we have to write up our labs?
Writing lab reports is in fact the start of becoming a professional scientist. Most articles in scientific journals are based on the laboratory report structure. Here, we'll present some basic guidelines for report writing. If your departmental guide is different, then follow it.
For your first few reports you may only be required to write up one or two sections of the lab-e.g. introduction and results.

Headings
A laboratory report may include:

Title
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Appendices

Not all of these sections are used in all departments or at all year levels. Articles in scientific journals-especially those which report the results of experiments or tests-follow a similar format. This is sometimes referred to as the 'IMRAD' format: introduction, methods, results, analysis, discussion. The introductory section makes a claim that is supported or demonstrated by the evidence in later sections. Evidence presented is drawn together in a concluding section.

Title and the title page
The lab report title may be set by the department and appear in your handbook or prac manual, so check there first. If you have to make up your own title, make it brief, informative and interesting. It is not usually a sentence. If your title is too brief, for example-'Seed Yield', or 'Dye Patterns'-it will be too general to be informative and interesting. On the other hand, more than twelve words is probably too many. Be concise and meaningful: not 'Enzymes in Bacteria', but 'Dihydrofolate Reductase in Baccillus subtilis'. Your name, your student number, the date of the experiment, the demonstrator's name, the due date and the title of the experiment are all included on the title page. You may need to fill in a form and put it on the front of your report. Don't forget this important information.

Abstract
This can be the most difficult part of the laboratory report to write. It must be short-often less than 100 words-and certainly not more than 5 per cent of the total wordage. Most abstracts are a single paragraph. The abstract must make complete sense on its own. Don't repeat the title in the abstract, but state the aims of the experiment, the results reached, and the methods used. Conclude with the principal findings. Remember, the abstract summarises the whole report.

As you may have guessed, it is best to write the abstract after everything else, so that you know exactly what your findings and conclusions are! There are not usually references in abstracts (more about references later).

Introduction
Your introduction should be clear and concise. It tells the reader what to expect in your report. Table 8.1 summarises the four important ingredients in any good introduction.

The introduction is written in the past tense, and in scientific style (see Chapter 7 (pp. 71-2)). Like abstracts, introductions are often written after the other sections.

Table 8.1 The elements of an introduction
Problem State the area investigated by the experiment
Background fd Summarise previous research in the area, narrow the area of study
Objectives Give the aim of your experiment and state the method
Hypothesis State this clearly (it may be in your laboratory manual, so check there first)

Materials and methods
Sometimes this section has subheadings such as Subjects, Apparatus, Procedure. This section should contain clear enough instructions for someone to be able to replicate your experiment. If in doubt, that's the guideline to use. You describe the experimental design, the treatments, the apparatus, and the subjects. This section is easy-you know what you did. There are rules for the conventional descriptions of chemicals, animals and plants. Follow these exactly as recommended by your department. For example, common names of animals or plants are only acceptable if they are followed by scientific description in brackets after the first such use, e.g. 'the sooty shearwater (Puffinus griseus);.

In general, do not use trade names for chemicals; use instead the generic or chemical names. You may use standard, well-known abbreviations (such as NaCl), but do not make your paper too difficult to follow by overuse of these (it is usual to write 'water' rather than 'H2O).

If you have made any of the apparatus yourself, you must explain it clearly and perhaps show its construction in a diagram. Standard apparatus should be described in proper technical terms, i.e. not `a big test tube', but `a test tube of 13.5 cm diameter'. Technical terms can be appropriate in this context. When reporting field experiments, it is usual to describe the soil type, and the weather, which may have been an important factor.

Zoe says: 'I got an okay mark for my first Zoology lab report, but I was told my report was much too long. My demonstrator said my method section had way too much information.

'I thought you had to say what you did so that someone could copy your lab exactly, but my demonstrator crossed out huge chunks of my work. He said you don't need to explain things like the format for recording raw data or detailed descriptions of equipment.

'Also, he said it can be okay to refer to other books or experiments for description of complicated but common procedures.

'I guess I made a mistake in assuming my report was written for someone who didn't know the subject. If I think about writing for someone in my class I find it easier to decide what to put in.'


Describe your procedures and methods of measurement (use past tense). Sometimes (where standard procedures are used) you can cite a reference rather than giving a particular procedure, e.g. 'as in O'Tool's (1994) paper'. However, do not simply say 'as in the Physica 1M manual'; you must practise using your own words to describe your actions-unless your demonstrator tells you otherwise.

At the end of the materials and methods section, you should also give details of how you analysed data. Long statistical calculations can be attached in an appendix; we'll explain appendices a bit more later.

Results
This is a simple section, because it merely describes what happened. Yet in terms of scientific value, it is the most important section of your paper. Here you report the data upon which you have based your conclusions. Accuracy and clarity are of prime importance here. The reader can quarrel with your interpretations, but there should be no areas of dispute in your results. Some students like the fact that results are so clearly right or wrong, while others find them difficult, for that reason.

Simple errors here are as easy to spot as they are to make, so check that you have accurately and faithfully reported the results of your experiment. If the results look vague or sloppy, your marker imagines that is the sort of scientist you are!

Report first the results bearing directly on the title of your laboratory report. Any other interesting findings come after this. If you had more than one hypothesis, you may want to organise your results to reflect this. Never falsify findings; if your results did not support the hypothesis, no matter how well accepted that hypothesis, then say so. (However, all such explanation belongs in the discussion section, not with the results.) If, in your experiment, gravity forced objects away from the Earth, or every chicken turned away from light, then report that fact. There will no doubt be good reasons for these happenings, and it is up to you, as the scientist, to put forward (in the discussion section) possible explanations (such as faulty methodology, or the discovery of a new strain of nocturnal-feeding poultry). Don't be disappointed by negative results. You have still discovered something: even if you are only adding to a process of elimination, you are contributing to scientific endeavour. A negative result is still a result.

Tables and figures

Do I have to put in diagrams and stuff?
Results are often given in the forms of tables and figures. There are certain ways to do this. Figures and tables do not simply repeat information given in the text; they summarise, amplify, or complement it. Tables and figures are most common in the results section, but the rules for presentation are the same no matter which section they appear in.

What's the difference between tables and figures?
Tables usually present data in columns in numbers, or values. Tables are given a caption at the top, and numbered as they appear-Table 1, and so on. You should mention each table in the written part (text) of the Results section, usually just pointing out the most important cell. For example, 'The effect of the fertiliser was greatest in the northern plot, as shown in Table 3'. It is also fine to put the reference to the table or figure in brackets at the end of a sentence (Table 2).

The other type of 'illustration' you can use in a lab report is a figure. A figure can be lots of different things. Figures include diagrams, graphs, drawings, photos-in fact anything that's not a table. Figures are numbered separately from tables, so you have Table 1 and also Figure 1. Figures are also captioned, but their captions appear below the figure. You should also write about each figure in the text. As you can see, when you write about the illustrations, you use capital letters for each Figure and Table. Some examples are below.

Table 1 Quality of cat purrs for sample period 1 (120s)
Breed Vibrations Respirations Volume (db) Duration
Russian Blue 700 47 63 120
Siamese 674 50 59 120
Non-pedigree 745 48 60 100
Chinchilla 596 51 57 46
Maine Coon 710 46 66 120


Figure 1 An image from the DOGZ program


Figure 2 Purr vibrations by breed



Figure 2 presents some information from Table 1 in a new form. Generally, you can present information in a table or a figure, but not both. Sometimes you will be told which format to use, or you might have to decide for yourself. Pick the format that shows the relevant results the most clearly.

Discussion
A lot of students find this section the most troublesome to write. That's because it requires the most thinking. In the discussion, you comment on the results you have reported in the previous section.

The discussion has clear connections with the introduction; these connections may include subheadings or organisation. Sometimes it is easiest to write about the results by breaking your discussion into subsections, especially if there was a multifactorial design. (You should be using the past tense in all these sections.)

In the discussion, you should analyse the results, and link your results with what you read in the text, prac manual, or other sources that you talked about in the introduction. You say whether or not the results supported the hypothesis; if not, this is where you can suggest reasons why. Were there any general trends that became obvious? This is also where you may comment on suspect methodology or reliability-that is, where you talk about what you did wrong in terms of design and procedures.

You then have a concluding paragraph (it may be as little as one sentence) that states the significance of your findings, and perhaps suggests further steps in the scientific process. For example, you may state that it would be advisable to repeat the experiment with corrections to the procedures, or that a future researcher could discover more by adding an extra dimension to your design.

Acknowledgments
It is courteous to acknowledge any special help. This is regularly done at the end of a paper or thesis, but not usually in a lab report. You will see acknowledgments at the end of articles in scientific journals.

References
Here's a brief word about citation-there's more detail in the next chapter (pp. 105-7).

You will consult different 'sources' of information (textbooks, journals, lab manuals, Internet etc.) when you need something to put into your introduction. At university level, you must tell the reader where you found any information that is not common knowledge and that you didn't spontaneously think of yourself. A

ny time you write in your assignment a piece of information that you have collected from a source, you will need to cite that source. All the sources you 'cite' are called 'references'.

At the end of your laboratory report, you will need to attach a list of references. This list must contain everything you cited in the report, and nothing more. If you read it, but didn't cite, it doesn't (normally) go in your list. The exception here is when you are asked to provide a bibliography, rather than a reference list. A bibliography is a list of everything you read, whether you cite it or not.

There are specific citation and referencing conventions used in scientific disciplines and there will either be a guide to these published by your department, or your department might recommed a style in a specific journal (like Evolution for Genetics) or manual (like the APA Style Manual for Psychology).

Appendices
You don't have to have an appendix or appendices in your report, but there might be some detailed information that you want to include. For instance, an appendix might contain the raw data for your results-results sections are a summary of findings, so the initial unprocessed figures don't really belong there.

Appendices may also include information from the method section: samples of questionnaires used, proof of ethics approval, survey map of the area where you did your fieldwork.

Appendices are numbered, and each appendix needs a heading with its number clearly indicated. In the text when you want the reader to know where he/she can find more detailed information, you need to refer to the appendix by number as you do for tables and figures. This reference often comes in brackets at the end of a sentence (see Appendix 3).

Presentation
Before submitting your laboratory report, check it for spellings, grammar and layout, as well as making sure the content is correct (or as close as you can make it). It's a good idea to check whether you need to type your report, and whether hand-drawn graphs are okay. Your department might prefer centred headings, or 4cm margins right and left, or double spacing, so it's important to get it right. Why waste marks on simple format details?

Extract from:
Studying Science at University: Everything You Need to Know.
Rhoden, Clare and Starkey, Robyn (1998) Sydney:
Allen & Unwin, pp. 83-93.
Click on the title to find out more about this book.


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REPORTS

Here's a failsafe, short set of guidelines for producing a good report. It would be a good idea to have a list like this pinned up above your desk, so that you can check off each point as you are writing your report. It's only a suggestion, but it could get you a much better mark. What do you have to lose?

Each discipline or subject sets specific report formats for you to follow. Always follow these formats exactly because often a certain percentage of the marks for a report is awarded for presentation and using the correct format. Reports are usually written for research or lab-based assignments. Whilst report writing is different from essay writing, the techniques described earlier for planning, researching and organising your material still apply. Report formats use subheadings to divide the text and make more use of tabulated and diagrammatic presentation of information. The nature of report formats varies depending on the discipline and the assignment. Use the following guidelines as a checklist:

Report titles: provides a good description of what the report is about.
Abstract: separated from the rest of the text on a separate page (see pp. 116-17).
Introduction: provides a brief discussion of the problem or topic being dealt with.
Literature review: a brief review of the literature (described and analysed).
Research question: a clear statement of the research question or problem. Sometimes this is included in the introduction to the report.
Methodology: provide a description of the when, where and how of the study. Include information on the sample (number of subjects, where they were recruited and how they were selected); the data collection techniques used (interviews, surveys, observation, experiments); and how the data was processed, presented and analysed.
Results (and discussion): the data is presented in the results section which describes the findings. Some report formats allow you to combine the results and the discussion, whilst others prefer the two sections to be dealt with separately.
Discussion and conclusions: analyse the results by linking them to the existing empirical and theoretical literature that you summarised in the literature review. Keep the research question in mind and make some conclusions based on the data. Also note any problems encountered and possibilities for improvement of the study or areas for future research.
Provide a list of references.



Extract from:
Get Great Marks for Your Essays.
Germov, John (1996) . Sydney:
Allen & Unwin, pp. 117-18.
Click on the title to find out more about this book.


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THE ABC OF REPORT WRITING

Is a report really so different to an essay? OK, we admit that there are some similarities, but there are some very important extras that have to be included in order to get good marks. Here's a step-by-step guide to planning and preparing a report.

A report is a systematic, logical, attractively presented statement of facts, ideas, judgments-and sometimes recommendations-directed to a specific reader who needs this data to reach a sound decision. In the early stages of your studies you are more likely to be reading research reports than writing them. Knowing how to write them helps you to understand and assess the ones you read.

Like good essays, reports also have an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Some reports also have a section, after the body but before the conclusion, that recommends action that should or shouldn't be taken as a result of the report's findings. Reports are usually drawn up from detailed research and can be fairly lengthy. An essay tends to show both sides of an argument, but a report usually provides information without opinion, except in the recommendations.

Knowing the ABC of report writing will help you to keep your reports:

Accurate
Brief
Clear
And remember, 'brief' doesn't necessarily mean a short essay here, but one that leaves out unnecessary detail. So let's look at how you plan and prepare a report.

First, be sure you understand the purpose of the report. Write this down in one sentence. It could be to provide information, to analyse facts, to put forward ideas or to recommend a course of action.

Next, think about who will read the report and why. What would the reader want to know? What does the reader already know? How will the reader use the report? Even if the report is for a class or tutorial assignment, the lecturer will probably have given you some background information. If not, ask the teacher to suggest sources.

Now it's time to start collecting all the facts and ideas related to the subject that you can find, and from as many sources as possible. You could use various techniques such as observations, interviews, discussions, surveys, questionnaires and investigations besides books and other publications. Take lots of notes, and don't forget to write down the source of your information. If you interview people be sure to make notes even if you use a tape recorder. Don't put all your eggs in one basket. Tape recorders do all sorts of strange things: batteries dry up, tapes become tangled and sometimes you even forget to press the 'record' button!

Questionnaires are handy when you want to collect data from a lot of people and don't have time to interview them. On the other hand, setting the questions is not always easy. They have to be very clear so they won't be misunderstood, and then you have to be careful about the conclusions you draw from the answers.

Library searches involve reading all kinds of books, journals, bulletins, articles, reports, etc. Again, be careful to collect all the information about the sources (see Chapter 18 (pp. 141-2)) for your bibliography.

Visual aids such as diagrams, maps, photographs and charts should only be used if they clarify the content of the report. Unnecessary graphics make it too bulky and annoy the reader.

Principal parts of a report
Your report may have all of these parts, or, if it's a fairly short one, only some of them.

Title page
This identifies the report. It states the title, the author, the reader-and this can be something generic like 'Construction workers' or 'Mature-age students'-and the date of completion. The title of your report should be factual and informative-this isn't a mystery novel.

Letter of transmittal
Sometimes called a 'cover letter', this explains who requested the report and briefly summarises it. This could be attached to the cover page.

Table of contents
You'll need this if your report is more than 3 or 4 pages long. It shows the major and minor sections and outlines the structure. It should also contain a list of diagrams, charts, tables and so on.

Summary
Sometimes called a synopsis, it very briefly summarises the contents of the report. Add it to a long report so that people see whether it is worth reading the whole report.

Introduction
This tells the reader what your report contains. If it's well written and convincing people are more likely to read the rest. Here you should also give the reader an idea of the problems you found, your method of research, and the objectives of your study.

Body of the report
Obviously this is the largest part of your report and it should be logically ordered, easy to read, easy to understand and pleasing to look at. One way of presenting it well is to number the sections (or main headings), sub-headings and points. For example:

1. Sub-heading
1.1 First point.
1.2 Second point relating to the same sub-heading.
Each point may have more than one paragraph and in some reports each paragraph is numbered-1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3 and so on-but this is only necessary when the report is very long or if points are referred to in other documents.

Your sub-headings should be clear and lead your reader logically through the information you are presenting and the conclusions you have drawn from it.

Recommendations
This gives the reader solutions and recommends courses of action to take (or avoid) concerning the information presented in the body of the report. If there is more than one possible solution or course of action, indicate which you prefer and explain why.

Conclusion
Here you summarise your report very briefly, noting the main points of the data and of your recommendations. At the end put your name, signature and the date.

Appendix
This is where you put any supplementary material that would interrupt the flow of the body of the report. It could include photographs, maps, charts, experiment results, a very recent update of material, or any other data that would clarify the report.

Bibliography
This is a list of your sources of information and Chapter 18 (pp. 138-42) gives you detailed information on how to put this together. Having done your research, written a draft and checked your facts you are now ready to do the final draft. Here is a checklist to ensure that you haven't left anything out.

Checklist for report writing
Do you have all the necessary parts?

Title page
Table of contents
Summary (or synopsis)
Introduction
Body of the report
Recommendations (or discussion)
Conclusion
Appendix
Bibliography
Have you checked your grammar, spelling and general flow of language? Does it make sense to you? If there is time, ask a friend to read it through and make comments.


Extract from:
Returning to Learning? Studying as an Adult: Tips, Traps and Triumphs.
Brem, Caroline (1996) Sydney:
Allen & Unwin, pp, 132-7.
Click on the title to find out more about this book.